32
English and develop their competences. This model must include standard vocabulary
exercises (fill-in, synonyms, antonyms, word pairs, matching terms and definitions
etc.). But also, up-to date tools, such as case-studies, interviews, business cases, and,
especially, creative management tools.
Conclusion to Chapter I
The first chapter of this paper reviews the literature in the field of ESP, its
definitions, historical development, ESP typology and main strategies and methods
used to teach ESP.
Following the study of the theoretical material on this topic it becomes vivid
that the appearance of ESP was not a planned movement, but it has emerged because
of three main reasons. The first one is that the end of the World War II marked the
beginning of a new world that witnessed expansion in all fields (science, commerce,
technology) and as a result an international language became a necessity.
The second reason, which had a tremendous impact on the emergence of ESP,
was the revolution in linguistics. Traditionally, linguistics focused on studying the
structural features of the language, but the revolutionary pioneers shifted their focus on
the communication side.
The third, but also of high significance, was the growing importance of the role
and influence of the United States on the world political and economic arena.
The chapter offers a wide analysis of the numerous definitions of ESP, which
have also evolved based on the changes in theoreticians’ and practitioner’s views.
However, all definitions have common elements, also called “absolute features” which
embrace the ESP goal of teaching and learning English as a foreign language, where
the aim of the learner is to use English in a particular domain.
This chapter has intended to give a clear understanding of the ESP approach.
Being designed to meet the needs of the learners, ESP will be designed and will make
use of that methodology and activities that are having as basis the language (grammar,
lexis, register) skills, discourse and genre appropriate to such special needs, in
accordance with the targeted area or domain that is taught.
33
Chapter II. Case Studies as Linguo- didactic Tool
2.1 Concept, Definition and Typology of Case Studies
A traditional method for the organization of English for Specific Purposes
lessons has long been the Task-Based Learning approach. Task-Based Learning is a
variant of the Communicative Language Approach which bases activities around the
preparation for, doing, and reflective analysis of tasks that reflect real-life needs and
skills [38, P. 32]. Task based learning is a different way to teach languages. It can help
the student by placing them in a real-world situation. That is, a situation where oral
communication is essential for doing a specific task. One of the tools of the TBL
method are case studies [ibid.].
Case studies as a method of teaching foreign languages appeared in the 1930’s
in the UK. It was founded by H. Palmer, M. West and A. Hornby who considered
rigorous selection of lexical material to be the basis of this method. Today, two classic
“case study” schools are considered to predominate: the Harvard School (from here on
referred to as the American School) and the Manchester Schools (the European School)
[21, p. 12]. The American School aims to find the only feasible solution for the specific
case study and organizes the teaching process to achieve this goal. The European
School aims to discuss and find a multi-version solution for the given case. It supports
the idea that the case is not a problem and it does not have a unique correct solution
[ibid].
The use of Case studies has developed and changed in many ways since first
being used and today there exist more than one definition of case studies. Some
definitions from practitioners and online sources are listed below:
“A case study is a written account that gives detailed information about a
person, group, or thing and their development over a period of time
2
”
.
A case study is a story about something unique, special, or interesting stories
can be about individuals, organizations, processes, programs, neighborhoods,
institutions, and even events. The case study gives the story behind the result by
2
Collins Dictionary [electronic resource]. – https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/case-study
34
capturing what happened to bring it about and can be a good opportunity to highlight
a project’s success, or to bring attention to a particular challenge or difficulty in a
project [29, p.3].
Usually case studies are presented in narrative form, and often include problem
solving, some links to course readings or raw materials, and discussions by groups of
students, or the whole class. As a rule, case studies are more effective when they are
presented sequentially, so that students receive additional information depending on
the situation unfolds and can continue to analyze or criticize the situation or the
problem.
For academic purposes case studies are student-centered activities based on
description of an actual situation, commonly involving a decision, a challenge, an
opportunity, a problem or an issue faced by a person or persons in an organization. A
decision-maker faced with the situation described in a case can choose between several
alternative courses of action, and each of these alternatives may plausibly be supported
by a logical argument.
The case study method combines two elements: the case itself and the
discussion of the case [5]. Cases provide a rich contextual way to introduce new
material and create opportunities for students to apply the material they have just
learned. Effective cases are usually based on real events and can be drawn from both
the present and the past. During the classroom discussion, students carry out analytical
work of explaining the relationship between events in the case, identify options,
evaluate choices and predict the effects of actions.
Case studies do not have set elements that need to be included; the elements of
each will vary depending on the case or story chosen, the data collected, and the
purpose. However, more often, case studies typically describe a program or
intervention put in place to address a problem. Therefore, case studies usually have the
following elements, but they are not mandatory, as mentioned below [ibid.]:
a. the problem;
b. steps taken to address the problem;
c. challenges and how they were met;
35
d. results;
e. lessons learned.
Using case studies as teaching instrument allows the language teacher to target
and accomplish a wide range of objectives, mainly communicative [10, p. 15]:
- develop students’ critical and strategic thinking, develop problem solving skills;
- develop the ability to analyze difficult and unstructured problems;
- encourage collaborative learning and team-working skills, develop the ability to
work in groups, to bring supporting arguments and to debate different points of view;
- improve students’ organizational skills;
- provides students with the opportunity to apply creatively the language material
on the basis of their professional knowledge and allow them to adapt themselves to the
real-life situations;
- stimulates students to acquire new information and develop their general
academic knowledge.
There are several types of case studies; their typology focuses on the purposes
or objectives of the case study, on the complexity of the case, but also on the type of
the subject tackled to advance those objectives. It is important to underline that each of
the following types of cases can be used in any field or discipline. Whether it is
language teaching, psychology, business or the arts, the type of case study can apply
to any field. Several classifications of case studies are presented below [5, p. 23].
The following typologies are grouped according to the goals and/or objective
of the case study:
Illustrative (or descriptive) Case Studies. The descriptive case studies typically
utilize one or two instances of an event to show what a situation is like. Illustrative case
studies serve primarily to make the unfamiliar familiar and to give students a common
language about the topic in question.
Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies. These are condensed case studies
performed before implementing a large-scale investigation. Their basic function is to
help identify questions and select types of measurement prior to the main investigation.
The primary pitfall of this type of study is that initial findings may seem convincing
36
enough to be released prematurely as conclusions.
Cumulative Case Studies. These serve to aggregate information from several
sites collected at different times. The idea behind these cases is the collection of
information that will allow for greater generalization.
Critical Instance Case Studies. These examine the issue for the purpose of
either examining a situation of unique interest with little to no interest in
generalizability, or to call into question or challenge a highly generalized or universal
assertion. This method is useful for answering cause and effect questions.
The following typologies are grouped according to the types of subjects of the
case study:
Person. This type of study focuses on one particular individual. This case study
would use several types of research to determine an outcome.
Group. This type of study focuses on a group of people. This could be a family,
a group or friends, or even coworkers.
Location. This type of study focuses on a place, and how and why people use
the place.
Organization/Company. This type of study focuses on a business or an
organization. This could include the people who work for the company, or an event
that occurred at the organization.
Event. This type of study focuses on an event, whether cultural or social, and
how it affects those that are affected by it.
The following typologies are grouped according to the complexity of the case
study:
Highly structured cases. These are cases that give a short and exact summary
of the situation with exact figures and data.
Unstructured cases. These are cases that offer a wide range of data, reach in
details and figures. They aim to evaluate such abilities as rapid thinking and ability of
selection main and only useful information from a wide range.
A large variety of cases offers great opportunities to teachers while choosing
which kind of cases to use in dependence of the goal and objectives, content and
37
structure.
2.2 Case Studies Preparation and Framing Steps
Case Studies are helpful instruments in teaching foreign languages, therefore
building effective case studies is an ability that teachers have to learn and master very
well. A case study may be considered effective if it complies with several criteria that
were described by Davis [9, p. 163]:
a) tells a “real” and engaging story;
b) raises a thought-provoking issue;
c) has elements of conflict;
d) promotes empathy with the central characters;
e) lacks an obvious or clear-cut right answer;
f) encourages students to think and take a position;
g) portrays actors in moments of decision;
h) provides plenty of data about character, location, context, actions;
i) is relatively concise.
The process of preparing a good case study is a complex educational system
and is carried out in several stages [14, p. 145]. The first stage is clarifying the purpose
and the message of the case study. This is the stage where the author is supposed to
determine the structure of the case and make it clear about who/what the case will be
about. Table 2 comprises some questions that will help to make this stage evident.
The second stage is organizing the content, ideas and chronology. This is the
stage when all information shall be gathered, and the situational model isto be decided.
The third stage is preparing the case draft. While writing the case draft, the
author shall follow several rules that will make the context flawless and namely:
▪ Keep the writing as clear as possible. Keep sentences short and sharp.
▪ Avoid jargon and inappropriate vocabulary.
▪ Active tenses are easier to understand than passive tenses. For example:
“Gazprom pays all taxes on time” instead of “All taxes are paid on time by
Gazprom”.
38
▪ Avoid long paragraphs. Stick to one point per paragraph or a word limit of
approximately 100.
Table 2
Case Study Drafting Questions
3
Key
question
Common answers
Note
Who is it for?
Who is the audience?
Students learning
English as a foreign
language
The audience influences
the way the teachers
write and the
information they
include. The teacher
may be able to make
some assumptions about
what the audience
knows.
What is the purpose?
- Awareness
- Information
- Decision
- Action
The case study may fulfil
one or more of these
purposes.
What is the message?
- Showcase success
- Explain challenges
- Illustrate learning
The message should be
focused. Mixed
messages in a case
study should be avoided.
What is the focus?
- Outcomes and
impact
- Activities
- Processes
- Environment
(business, social,
political)
Visuals and different
case formats may be
used.
The author can add quotes, figures, graphs or images to strengthen the message
or to make the case study more attractive to the reader. However, these need to be
relevant.
3
Writing Case Studies Guide [electronic resource], -
http://www.evaluationsupportscotland.org.uk/media/uploads/resources/supportguide3.2casestudiesjul09.pdf
39
The fourth stage is a review of case efficiency and accuracy. The author may
add in more explanations if some aspects of the case study are not clear. Sometimes it
is useful to ask a feedback from other people. Two general questions may help the
author to determine if the case is efficient: Does the main message come across? Is it
necessary to give more evidence to support statements or arguments?
When the case study is drafted and revised the teacher may use it for its
academic purposes. Case studies are usually discussed in class, in a large group.
Sometimes, teachers may require individuals or groups of students to provide a written
analysis of a case study or to make an oral presentation on the case study in the
classroom. There are many ways of introducing the case study to the students. Below
is a list of main steps that should be completed during the case study introduction class:
1) Firstly, the teacher and the students read the case study together. Here any lexical
or grammatical issues may be discussed and explained. The teacher may also ask
the students to present the background information in a visual form.
2) Secondly, the teacher shall provide the students with detailed information on how
the case study should be analyzed.
3) Thirdly, the teacher shall pre-teach the language required to discuss the case study
in relation to the skill which is targeted by the case study.
A classroom case discussion is usually guided by the supervisor. Students are
expected to participate in the discussion and present their views. Interaction among
students, and between the students and the teacher, must take place in a constructive
and positive manner. Such interactions help to improve the analytical, communication,
and interpersonal skills of the students.
Case study framing stages are the same regardless whether the case study is
meant for language teaching or any other discipline. The best cases for teaching foreign
languages are short, with less detailed content and of minor importance. The content
of case studies is a tool and the language becomes the objective of the activity. Students
are assessed mainly for their linguistic competence.
Conclusion to Chapter II
Analysis of the case studies theory, their characteristics and framing procedure,
40
as well as the use of case studies as a communicative method for teaching ESP permits
the following conclusions:
Firstly, the process of preparing a good case study is a complex educational
procedure and is carried out in several stages. When applying case studies for teaching
ESP teachers must have the necessary knowledge and follow specified methodological
requirements.
Secondly, being a student-centered activity, and being based on description of
an actual situation, commonly involving a decision, a challenge, an opportunity, a
problem or an issue faced by a person or persons in an organization, the case study
during the class can and must target the exact needs that the learners are interested in.
Thirdly, the case study method combines two elements: the case itself and the
discussion of the case. Cases provide a rich contextual way to introduce new material
and create opportunities for students to apply the material they have just learned. For a
resultative use of cases it is important that the class be organized in such a way, that
both stages of the teaching process be completed,
Effective cases are usually based on real events and can be drawn from both
the present and the past, but it is important and motivating for learners to feel
themselves part of these real event. Taking decisions for real problems make the
learning process both interesting and effective.
41
Chapter III. Organization of ESP Teaching with Case Studies
3.1 The ESP Teacher Classroom Activities and Professional Competences
The major difference between ESP and EFL lies in the learners and their
purposes for learning English. ESP students are adults who already have some
familiarity with English and are learning the language in order to communicate a set of
professional skills and to perform particular job-related functions. An ESP program is
therefore built on an assessment of purposes and needs and the functions for which
English is required. ESP is part of a larger movement within language teaching away
from a concentration on teaching grammar and language structures to an emphasis on
language in context. The ESP focus means that English is not taught as a subject
divorced from the students' real world; instead, it is integrated into a subject matter area
important to the learners.
EFL and ESP differ not only in the nature of the learner, but also in the scope
of the goals of instruction. Whereas in EFL all four language skills; listening, reading,
speaking, and writing, are stressed equally, in ESP a needs assessment determines
which language skills are most needed by the students, and the program is focused
accordingly. An ESP program, might, for example, stress the development of reading
skills in students who are preparing for graduate work in engineering; or it might stress
the development of conversational skills in students who are studying English in order
to become tour guides.
ESP integrates subject matter and English language instruction. Such a
combination is highly motivating because students can apply what they learn in their
English classes to their major field of study, whether it be computer science,
accounting, business management, economics, or tourism. Being able to use the
vocabulary and structures that they learn in a meaningful context reinforces what is
taught and increases students' motivation. The students' abilities in their subject-matter
fields, in turn, enhance their ability to acquire English. Subject-matter knowledge gives
them the context they need to understand the English of the classroom. The ESP class
takes subject-matter content and shows students how the same information is expressed